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Terms Ad hominem - attacking the arguer rather than the argument Aesthetics - the study of beauty and the nature of beauty; the theory of art and artistic taste Allegory - a narrative with a second distinct meaning partially hidden behind its literal meaning—allegorical Alliteration - repetition of initial consonant sounds—alliterative Allusion - a reference to something-usually from literature, the Bible, mythology or history—of which the writer/speaker expects the reader/audience to be aware Ambiguity - openness to different interpretations, causing confusion but sometimes desirable, especially with poetry Anachronism - being in the wrong time period—anachronistic Analogy - a situation with two or more parallel components—analogous Anaphora - a rhetorical figure of repetition in which the same word or phrase is repeated in (and usually at the beginning of) successive lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences Anecdote – a brief story (narrative), usually used to make a point Anticlimax - an abrupt lapse from growing intensity to triviality in any passage, with the effect of disappointing expectation or deflated suspense—anticlimactic Antithesis - the opposite idea—antithetical Aphorism - a statement of some general principle, expressed memorably by condensing much wisdom into few words (maxim) Apostrophe - a rhetorical figure where the speaker/writer addresses an abstraction, an inanimate object or a dead or absent person Argumentative appeals – established by Aristotle Ethos – appeal relying of the credentials of the speaker Logos – appeal to logic or reason Pathos – appeal to emotions Argumentative fallacies Begging the question – assuming the claim must be true Ad Hominem – distracting by attacking the opponent Appeal to popularity – also ad populum, because others believe it must be true Bandwagon – the appeal involves a threat of rejection to persuade someone to believe your claim Appeal to flattery – using flattery to get someone to believe your claim Hasty Generalization – basing a conclusion on a sample that is too small Post hoc – because A occurred before B, A caused B Biased sample – basing a conclusion of a prejudiced sample Burden of proof – burden of proof is placed on the wrong side Red herring – irrelevant material is presented to divert attention Assonance - a repetition of vowel sounds Avant-garde - experimental and going against tradition (20th century) Ballad - a narrative poem with a repeated refrain Bard - a poet, especially Shakespeare Baroque - eccentric and lavishly ornate in style; associated with the Metaphysical poets of the early 17th century Beat writers - avant-garde writers of the 1950s, who favored spontaneous self-expression (Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac) Begging the question - making a statement that assumes that the issue being argued has already been decided Blank verse - unrhymed lines of iambic pentameter
Bloom’s Taxonomy – Benjamin Bloom created this taxonomy for categorizing level of abstraction of questions that commonly occur in educational settings. The taxonomy provides a useful structure in which to categorize test questions, since professors will characteristically ask questions within particular levels, and if you can determine the levels of questions that will appear on your exams, you will be able to study using appropriate strategies.
Bombast - extravagantly inflated and pompous diction, disproportionate to its subject matter Burlesque - parody that ridicules some serious literary work either by treating a solemn subject in a undignified style or by applying and elevated style to a trivial subject Cacophony – the use of harsh sounding words Cadence – rhythm Feminine cadence – rhythm that ends in an unstressed syllable Masculine cadence – rhythm the ends with an stressed syllable Carpe diem - seize the day (Marlow's "To His Coy Mistress") Chronicle - a written record of events presented chronologically Cinquain or quintet - a group of 5 lines of poetry Circumlocution - the roundabout manner of referring to something at length rather than naming it directly Cliché – an over worn expression Climax - a moment of great intensity in a literary work Comic relief - the interruption of a serious work by a short humorous episode Conceit - an unusually elaborate metaphor presenting a surprisingly apt parallel between two seemingly dissimilar things Concordance - an alphabetical index of all the significant words used in a text or group of related texts (Bible, Shakespeare's work) Concrete poetry - poetry whose visual arrangement is linked to its meaning Connotation - the range of further associations that a word or phrase suggests beyond its dictionary meaning—connote, connotative Consonance - repetition of consonant sounds Context - those parts of a text preceding and following any given passage, giving it fuller meaning—contextual Convention - an established practice (spelling, punctuation, syntax, etc.) Couplet - two lines of poetry Critique - an essay or review providing an assessment of a literary work, performance or film Deductive reasoning - applying a generalization to specific circumstances in order to reach a conclusion Denotation - the dictionary meaning of a word—denote, denotative Dénouement - the falling action after the climax; the resolution Development Narration How did it happen? Description How does it look, sound, feel, smell, taste? Sensory details Illustration or support What are examples of it or reasons for it? Definition What is it? What does it encompass, and what does it exclude? Analysis (division) What are its parts or characteristics?
Classification Into what groups or categories can it be sorted? Comparison and contrast How is it like, or different from, other things? Analogy Is it comparable to something that is in a different class but more familiar to the reader? Cause-and-effect analysis Why did it happen, or what results did it have? Process analysis How do you do it or how does it work? Device - an all-purpose term used to describe any literary technique deliberately employed to achieve a specific effect Dialect - a distinctive variety of a language, spoken by members of an identifiable regional group or social class Diatribe – a bitter and abusive speech or writing Diction/style - diction refers to the choice of words, while style relates to the aesthetic choice and arrangement of language Abstract Ambiguous Amusing Colloquial Complex Concrete Convoluted Droll Effusive Elegant Emotional Erudite Formal Free Idealistic Idiomatic Inflated Informal Jargon Journalistic Learned Light Lofty Lugubrious Ornate Pedantic Picturesque Poetic Professional Prudent Scholarly Subtle Technical Terse Uncomplicated Unrestricted Vulgar Witty Dissonance - harshness of sound and/or rhythm, either inadvertent or deliberate—dissonant Double entendre - a French phrase for 'double meaning,' adopted in English to denote a pun in which a word or phrase has a second, usually sexual, meaning Dramatic monologue - a poem in which a single fictional or historical character other than the poet speaks to a silent 'audience' of one or more persons (Robert Browning's "My Last Duchess") Echo – repeating words, phrases or lines Elegy - an elaborate formal lyric poem lamenting the death of a friend or public figure Ellipsis – three periods used to indicate that one or more words have been omitted or to indicate a pause or interruption Enjambment or run-on line – a line of poetry whose flow of speech continues, without a pause, into the next line Epic - a long narrative poem celebrating the great deeds of one or more legendary heroes (Odyssey) Epilogue – the concluding part of a literary work often serving to knit up loose ends Epiphany - James Joyce defined it as a 'sudden spiritual manifestation'; a sudden realization Episodic - a narrative made up of loosely connected incidents rather than by an integrated plot—episode Epistle - a letter (Paul's epistle to the Romans in the Bible) Epithet - an adjective or adjectival phrase used to define a characteristic quality or attribute of some person or thing (rosy-fingered dawn) Ethos - a rhetorical strategy where the speaker/writer appeals to the weight of his/her own character, intelligence, goodwill or expertise Euphemism - using pleasant language to refer to something less pleasant (He passed on.)—euphemistic Explication - a thorough analysis of assessment of a literary work, esp. poetry Fable – an allegory that uses animals to represent human behavior Figurative language – an expression that departs from the accepted literal sense, also figure of speech Lexical or semantic figures – those having to do with meaning Antithesis Euphemism Hyperbole Irony Metaphor Metonymy Oxymoron Paradox Personification Pun Simile Synecdoche Understatement Phonological figures – those having to do with sound Alliteration Assonance Cacophony Consonance Dissonance Echo Euphony Onomatopoeia Repetition Rhyme Synaesthesia Orthographic figures – those having to do with shape (concrete poetry) Syntactical figures (arrangement figures) Asyndeton – unusual omission of conjunctions, i.e., “O, what a noble mind is here o’erthrown/ The courtier’s, soldier’s, scholar’s, eye, tongue, sword” (Hamlet) Chiasmus – cross-wise or mirror-image arrangement of elements, i.e., “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” (Macbeth) Ellipsis – omission of a word or phrase, i.e., “Beauty is truth, truth Beauty” (Keats). Hysteron proteron – inversion of the natural order of events, i.e., “Let us die and rush into battle” (Virgil) Parallelism – repetition of syntactical units (phrases, clauses, sentences), i.e., out of sight, out of mind. Polysyndeton – use of (unnecessarily) many conjunctions, i.e., “It runs and runs and runs.” Zeugma – the merging or overlap of two normally distinct constructions, i.e., “Anna . . ./ Dost sometimes counsel take—and sometimes tea” (Pope). Pragmatic figures (speaker-hearer related figures) Apostrophe Irony Rhetorical question Figures of speech - an expression that departs from the accepted literal sense, also figurative language Flashback - going back in time Foot - an individual measure of poetic rhythm (iamb, trochee, anapest) Anapest – (ool) a three-syllable foot that begins with two unstressed syllables and ends with a stressed syllable; an inverted dactyl (“It was many and many a year ago”—Poe) Dactyl – (loo) a three-syllable foot that begins with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (“Virginal Lilian, rigidly, humbly, dutiful”—Poe) Iamb – (ol) a two-syllable foot beginning with an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one which is the most common rhythm in English poetry (“To be or not to be"--Shakespeare Pyrrhic (oo) two unstressed syllables Spondee – (l l) two stressed syllables Trochee – (lo) a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one (“Go and catch a falling star”—Donne) Formulaic - characterized by the repetition of certain stock phrases or patterns Free verse - poetry that does not conform to any regular meter Function/purpose - the use of a word, phrase, sentence or whole literary work Anticipate objections Assess Assert Attack Berate Bridge Broaden Call in question Caution Champion Concede Contradict Convince Define Develop Dismiss Distinguish Dramatize Educate Entertain Exemplify Expand Explain Imitate Imply Indicate Inspire Justify Lament Object Offer Persuade Placate Praise Prescribe Recommend Reflect Repeat Represent Respond Restate (reiterate) Suggest Summarize Support Undercut Genre - type or class of composition (poem, novel, short story) Gothic romance - a story of terror or suspense, usually set in a gloomy old castle or similar environment (Shelley's Frankenstein) Grammar - established syntactical patterns of conventions absolute construction - Christensen's absolute phrase active voice - the use of the verb which conveys the subject's action agreement - matching singular nouns with singular verbs and pronouns and plural nouns with plural verbs and pronouns appositive - Christensen's noun phrases balanced sentence - a sentence consisting of two clauses with parallel construction (Do as I say, not as I do.) clause - a grammatical unit containing a subject and verb comparative form – in adjectives and adverbs formed by adding –er or more complement - that which receives the action of the verb, or a predicate nominative or predicate adjective complex sentence - a sentence containing a base clause (Christensen's term) plus a dependent clause compound sentence - a sentence containing more than one base clause (Christensen's term) dependent clause - a clause that cannot stand by itself (subordinate, relative, noun) independent clause - Christensen's base clause, by itself a simple sentence direct object - that which receives the action of the verb (Martha threw the ball.) indirect object - that which receives the direct object (Martha threw Bert the ball.) intransitive verb – a verb which transmit action to a complement (direct object) irregular verb – a verb which forms its past tense and past participle in a manner other than adding –ed loose sentence or cumulative sentence - a sentence where the independent (base) clause comes first followed by modifiers (stylistically this is informal, relaxed, and conversational) nonrestrictive phrase or clause – a phrase or clause which are not essential to the basic meaning of the sentence parallelism - using the same grammatical structure when listing material in a series passive voice - the sentence's subject is acted upon periodic sentence - a sentence where the central meaning or main clause is at the end of the sentence, with phrases and/or dependent clauses coming before phrase – a group of words which operate as a unit but which lack either a subject or predicate qualifier - a modifier which limits the meaning of that which it modifies simple sentence - a sentence with one base clause and no free (Christensen term) modifiers superlative form – in adjectives and adverbs formed by adding –est or most transitive verb – a verb which does not transfer action to a complement, i. e., it does not have a direct object haiku - a three line unrhymed poem about nature with 5 syllables in the first and third lines and 7 in the middle line (originates from
half-rhyme - the two words come close to rhyming heroic couplet - a pair of rhyming iambic pentameter lines of poetry homily - a sermon or morally instructive lecture humanism - a 19th century term for the values and ideals of the European Renaissance, which placed a new emphasis on the expansion of human capacities hyperbole – exaggeration--hyperbolic idiom - a phrase that cannot be translated literally into another language because its meaning is not equivalent to that of its component words—idiomatic idyll - a short poem describing an incident of country life in terms of idealized innocence and contentment imagery - a rather vague critical term covering those uses of language that evoke sense-impressions by literal or figurative reference to perceptible or concrete objects, scenes, actions, or states inductive reasoning - inferring a generalization from specific evidence inflection - the use of word modifications such as suffixes or infixes to indicate such qualities as tense, gender, case, and number internal rhyme - rhyming a word(s) within a line of poetry with a word at the end of a line or within a nearby line intrusive narrator - an omniscient narrator who offer further comments on characters and events invective - a harsh denunciation of someone or something using abusive language inversion - the reversal of the normally expected order of words (syntax) invocation - an appeal made by a poet to a muse or deity for help in composing the poem irony dramatic - the reader/audience knows something the character does not situational - happening the opposite of what is expected verbal - the discrepancy between what is said and what is really meant Jacobean - belonged to the period 1603-25 when James I ruled
lament - and poem expressing profound grief or mournful regret lampoon - an insulting written attack upon a real person, usually involving caricature and ridicule local color - capturing the unique customs, manners, speech, folklore, and other qualities of a particular regional community, often humorously (particularly popular in the late 19th century) logic - that which intellectually makes sense, without emotional considerations logos - in an argument, appealing to the reader/audience's sense of logic or common sense lyric - in the modern sense, any fairly short poem expressing the personal mood, feeling, or meditation of a single speaker (lyrical poetry) malapropism - a confused, comically inaccurate use of a long word or words (from Mrs. Malaprop in
maxim - a short and memorable statement of a general principle (aphorism) melodrama – a play with exaggerated emotions--melodramatic metaphor - an imaginative comparison—metaphorical Metaphysical poets - the name given to a diverse group of 17th century English poets whose work is notable for its ingenious use of intellectual and theological concepts in surprising conceits, strange paradoxes, and far-fetched imagery (John Donne, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert) meter - poetic rhythm metric feet – SEE foot metric length – the length of a line of poetry measured by metric feet Monometer Pentameter Dimeter Hexameter Trimeter Heptameter Tetrameter metonymy - a figure of speech that replaces the name of one thing with the name of something else closely associated with it (the Whitehouse)—metonymic MLA – Modern Language Association monosyllabic - using one syllable words motif - a situation, incident, idea, image, pattern or character type that is pound in many different works or a repeated pattern within a single work muse - a source of inspiration to a poet or other writer, usually female deity narrative - a recounting of events Naturalism - a literary movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by a philosophy influenced by Darwinism Neoclassicism - a literary movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries characterized by rational thinking, with increased interest in Greek and Roman culture neologism - a new word with a known origin octave or octet - a set of 8 lines of poetry ode - an elaborately formal lyric poem omniscient narrator - a third person narrator who reveals what other characters are thinking onomatopoeia - words which have sound qualities related to its meaning oxymoron - two opposite words juxtaposed organizational thought patterns Cause and Effect Chronological Classification Comparison/Contrast Definition Illustration/Example Logical Order parable - a brief tale intended to be understood as an allegorical illustration of some lesson or moral paradox - a seeming contradiction parallelism - the arrangement of similarly constructed clauses, sentences, or verse lines in a pairing or other sequence paraphrase - a restatement of a text's meaning in different words, usually to clarify the sense of the original parody - a mocking imitation pathetic fallacy - a convention where natural phenomena act in harmony or sympathy with the character(s) pathos - a rhetorical strategy where the writer/speaker appeals to values he believes the reader/audience will agree with or relate to persona - the narrator in a poem personification - using human qualities for something nonhuman plagiarism – the presentation of another writer’s ideas or words as if they were your own without acknowledging the source poetic justice - getting what one deserves poetic license - the imaginative or linguistic freedom granted to writers, allowing them to depart from normal standards or factual accuracy point of view - the position of the narrator; the speaker's attitude polemic - a thorough written attack on some opinion or policy, usually theological or political) polysyllabic - characterized by words with many syllables Précis – a concise summary or abstract Preface – a preliminary statement in a book, usually describing its nature, purpose and/or scope Pre-Raphaelites - a group of English writers and artists of the Victorian period, associated directly or indirectly with the self-styled Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood of young artists founded in 1848 by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Everett Millais, and William Holman Hunt prologue - an introduction prose - written work other than poetry quatrain - a group of 4 lines of poetry Realism- a literary movement of the second half of the 19th century resolution – the falling action after the climax, dénouement rhetoric - the deliberate exploitation of language for effect or purpose rhetorical structure - the organization of a work Analysis Analogy Apology Argument Casual analysis Classification Comparison Contrast Criticism Deduction Definition Description Division Example Exhortation Exposition Extended analogy Illustration Induction Journalistic report Narration Question and answer Resolution Synopsis rhyme scheme - the rhyme pattern Romanticism - a literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries satire - ridiculing someone or something--satirical Horatian - satire with a tolerant amused tone Juvenalian - satire with a bitter condemnatory tone Sentimentalism - a variation of Romanticism where emotions and event are exaggerated Sentence – a group of words forming a complete thought Classified by clause type Simple Compound Complex Compound-complex Classified by function Declarative Interrogative Imperative Exclamatory sibilance - a repetition of S sounds simile - an imaginative comparison using ‘like’ or ‘as’ sonnet - a poem, most often of 14 lines, in iambic pentameter with a set rhyme scheme first popularized by the Italian poet Petrarch (1304-1374) in the 14th century; Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542) brought it to England, changing to the final heroic couplet; Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517-1547) established the abab cdcd efef gg pattern Petrarchan - generally two quatrain making an octave (abbaabba), followed by a sestet (cdecde or cdcdcd); also called the Italian sonnet Shakespearean - generally three quatrains (abab cdcd efef), followed by a heroic couplet (gg); also called the English sonnet (English) Spenserian – (Edmund Spenser, 1552-1599) three quatrains (abab bcbc cdcd) followed by a heroic couplet (ee) stanza - a poetic "paragraph" stream of consciousness - imitating human thought patterns creating a sense of randomness syllogism - a form of deductive reasoning where two premises together lead to a conclusion synaesthesia - the blending or confusion of different kinds of sense-impressions synecdoche - a figure of speech using part to represent the whole (wheel to represent the whole car) syntax - the arrangement of grammatical units within the sentence for particular effect theme - the main idea (usually in fiction) thesis - the main idea (usually in nonfiction) tone - the writer/speaker's attitude Aggressive Ambivalent Anxious Arrogant Authoritarian Awestruck Candid Challenging Condescending Confident Contemptuous Contentious Critical Defensive Delicate Didactic Dignified Disdainful Disinterested Elevated Embittered Enthusiastic Exasperated Expert Formal Hateful Humorous Hyperbolic Imperious Incisive Incredulous Indifferent Informal Insolent Insulting Intolerant Ironic Jealous Melancholy Mocking Moderate Negative Noncommittal Nostalgic Objective Oratorical Outraged Patronizing Positive Querulous Questioning Regretful Restrained Retrospective Reverent Sarcastic Sardonic Satirical Scornful Self-satisfied Serious Sincere Smug Straightforward
Suspicious Tactful Tongue-in-cheek Uncertain Whimsical Transcendentalism - an offshoot of Romanticism which focused on intuitive knowledge achieved from communion with nature (Emerson, Thoreau) transition - a word, phrase, sentence, or paragraph used to lead the reader/listener into the next idea treatise - a written work devoted to a systematic examination of a particular subject, usually philosophical or scientific understatement - representing something as less than it is or with significant restraint verisimilitude - the semblance of truth or reality in literary works
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